Animal Farm and acts of violence essays

Animal Farm and acts of violence essays Orwells satire, Animal Farm, illustrates how a shifting of power results in a creation of haves and have-nots, through the act of violence. Violence is significant in this novel for it instigates the effects of a change in authority, and sustains any attained power. Revolutions erupt by those who feel they are becoming controlled by the behavior of others. Restrictions are either set or more freedoms are offered as opposing sides form, in the search of unlimited and absolute control. The violent scenes create an understanding of the manipulation towards the working class and their agony. Through hostility, the animals search for an improved life, by threatening assault. As a result of persistent violence from the animals, they achieve unlimited freedom towards work and pleasure. Although, their decisions are flexible, work is difficult without the help of man. Napoleon negatively uses intimidation and his mounting power to influence the animals lives. The animals fear for their lives as Napoleon recognizing his state of superiority. As Napoleon replaces the role of humans, the animals respect a fellow animal in charge, but are naive of his violent human-like tactics of cruelty. The pigs undoubtedly have more freedom since they do as the please, but it is done to the expense of the other animals labor. Nonetheless, the farm animals acquire a sense of pride and achievement, as they perform their duties for themselves only. However, their lives remain miserable, while the pigs lives thrive with luxury. Sympathies are felt for the farm animals that cant prevent the consolidation of power. Once the major violence subsides, their labor increases as their food supply decreases. Through the acts of violence, the animals instantly become controlled by the pigs, leaving the other animals lives depressing. The animals receive no authority from the dominating pigs as they ruthlessly state al...

Mitigation Strategies and Solutions

Mitigation Strategies and Solutions Free Online Research Papers Something is lurking beneath the waters of the world’s oceans. However, that something is far less that it has been in centuries past. That something is fish. According to Jeremy Jackson of the Scripps Institute of Oceanograph, ninety percent of the largest fish in the ocean have been depleted. A ten- year study has revealed that most of the large fish have been removed from the ocean and only ten percent are remaining. This revelation has come as a surprise to many people who believe the adage, â€Å"there are plenty of fish in the sea†. The current belief is that over fishing is depleting the world’s fish supply. However, pollution, habitat loss and climate change all factor into the loss of ocean life. It is estimated that â€Å"29% of edible fish and seafood species have declined by 90%† due to changes in the ocean’s biodiversity (DeNoon, 2006,  ¶ 8). The ocean’s biological diversity- the living resources that compose it and the ecological processes that sustain it- forms a foundation for the quality of human life as well as the raw materials to enrich it. Biological diversity, or biodiversity, refers to the variety and variability among living organisms, and among the ecological complexes of which they are a part. Marine living resources provide essential economic, environmental, aesthetic, and cultural benefits to humanity. Sixteen percent of all animal protein consumed worldwide comes from the ocean. (Hourigan, T., n.d.,  ¶ 2) A closer look at the ocean’s troubles reveals that most of the ocean’s loss of biodiversity is directly related to human activity. Pollution is a large contributing factor to the ocean’s decrease in biodiversity. Pollution is caused by multiple sources such as toxic waste, boats, garbage, runoff, and automobiles. Some of these sources are obvious, except perhaps automobiles. Consider this, exhaust from automobiles ends up being acid rain. When it rains, acid rain falls into the ocean polluting the ocean and killing fish. Overfishing is also a contributing factor, Overfishing has substantially depleted or made certain species extinct. Continued fishing, without significant regulations or changes, is seen by some people as the coming oceanic apocalypse. Nicola Beaumont, PhD, of the Plymouth Marine Laboratory, U.K., believes [I]f biodiversity continues to decline, the marine environment will not be able to sustain our way of life. Indeed, it may not be able to sustain our lives at all† (DeNoon, D., 2006,  ¶ 7). Aquaculture is an example of a way to continue to supply fish for human consumption. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) defines aquaculture as â€Å"the propagation and rearing of aquatic organisms in controlled or selected aquatic environments for any commercial, recreational, or public purpose† (NOAA,  ¶ 3). Aquaculture or fish farms allow the demand for fish to be met while allowing for the same fish in the ocean to replenish. If we can change how we think about fishing and couple aquaculture with reduced marine fishing quotas and protected marine life areas (it is estimated that less than one percent of the world’s oceans are protected) the idea of replenishing the world’s oceans can become a reality. Currently, however, aquaculture is in its infancy. Current practices need to be revised for a more environmentally friendly solution. According to Nathan Ayer, coastal salmon aquaculture â€Å"pollutes the ocean floor, spreads disease and could play havoc with wild salmon genetics.† Farmed fish live in a densely populated environment. As with most living creatures, living in close quarters leads to the spread of disease and parasites. Environmental harm can be caused by farming pens. If a farming pen contains non-native species and they escape, the invasive species can weak havoc on the ecosystem and spread parasites and disease. In response to these environmental concerns, aquaculture farmers have started using land-based systems that use concrete tanks to house the fish. The claim is that these land-based systems are capable of isolating farm-raised fish from wild fish and recycling and treating fish waste and feed. However, the land-based systems do not operate without their own environmental impact. The feed used requires production and delivery (something not necessary for wild fish). This production and delivery causes the consumption of fuel and the creation of greenhouse gases. It has also been found that land-based systems require large amounts of energy to pump water, oxygenate water, temperate water, and treat water. It is understood that the risks of aquaculture are to the farmed fish, the surrounding environment, and the human population. Does this mean that aquaculture should be abandoned? Absolutely not! What all this means is that we need to understand the risks and rewards associated with aquaculture and build a plan that helps replenish our oceans, feed our planet, and has a limited environmental impact. One such plan is offshore aquaculture. Offshore aquaculture â€Å"takes place in federal waters† which begins approximately 3 nautical miles offshore and ends approximately 200 nautical miles offshore (NOAA,  ¶2). Because of the distance from shore, offshore aquaculture operations require technologies that can withstand open ocean conditions, exposed to wind and waves. Experts believe that the offshore has great potential for all kinds sustainable aquaculture for many reasons, including the fact that there are fewer competing uses further from shore and that the deep water and strong flow make the offshore a desirable location from an environmental standpoint. (NOAA,  ¶3) Due to the swift waters in offshore aquaculture operations there is less concern of contamination to the ocean floor due to debris. Additionally, offshore aquaculture operations will not have the environmental impact caused by land-based systems with regard to energy consumption for pumping, oxygenating, and treating water. It is important to remember that traditional fishing techniques do cause more harm than aquaculture. Ocean trawling, for example, damages ocean beds that are needed for food and living environments of many sea creatures. Trawling also causes the unintended catch and death of non-targeted fish. In addition, the large fishing ships dump raw sewage, and gray and oily water into the oceans. The aforementioned actions all lead to the depletion of the very fish we are in desperate need of replenishing. To reverse the effects of over fishing, it is important to develop a plan that educates the commercial fishing community. The plan will need to teach the fishing community how certain actions impact the declining fish population and what we can do as a community to reverse this impact. The goal is to meet with members of the fishing community to discuss and research ideas to prevent over fishing and rebuild the fish population through offshore aquaculture, mandatory preserve areas, and implementation of a replenishment program. Action Items (in the correct order) Action Steps Timeline Research and identify the effects of over fishing. Review environmental Web sites and journals. Document the effects of over fishing and the environmental impact. Document video interviews of environmental researchers and commercial fishermen. Month 1-3 Develop a program about fish replenishment. Develop a presentation about why a fish replenishment program is needed and include the negative effects of over fishing, the commercial fishing changes that will be required, and the benefits and challenges of change. Month 1-3 Schedule a presentation day and time. Try to obtain the support of the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) and the NOAA Fisheries Service. Contact commercial fishing companies, NMFS and NOAA to present the benefits of the fish replenishment program. Document the audio and visual equipment needed for presentation and layout of the room. Month 4 Identify and invite community participants. Invite members of the fishing community to meet and participate in the presentation of the fish replenishment program. Month 4-5 Finalize plan based on outcome of meeting discussions. Information gathered during discussions with the fishing community will be used to finalize a program. The final program will be distributed to NOAA, NMFS and the commercial fishing community. Establish a deadline for final comments from NOAA, NMFS and the commercial fishing community. Review and incorporate final comments into the plan. Month 5-7 Implementation Begin implementation of plan by developing commercial marine aquaculture farms. Month 8-10 The benefits of aquaculture are economic, social and environmental. According to Meserve (2005) of Duke University, aquaculture can provide annual revenue in the billions, decrease our dependence on foreign food sources, provide needed employment to displaced fishermen, and reduce the harmful impact of traditional fishing. The challenge will be in trying to convince fishermen that these changes are good for everyone. Convincing the fishermen to embrace this change instead of fearing the end of their employment may be difficult. Alaska, in an attempt to save their fishing jobs, refused to allow the aquaculture of salmon. As a result, Alaska lost business and jobs when other states implemented the aquaculture of salmon fishing leading to the very thing Alaska was trying to prevent†¦the loss of jobs. Obtaining the support of NOAA towards implementation of the fish replenishment program could provide significant inroads with the fishing community. According to Carlowicz (2007), the National Offshore Aquaculture Act of 2007 has tasked NOAA â€Å"with establishing stringent standards and coordinating offshore aquaculture with efforts by individual states.† Past programs, such as those referenced above in this article, have been criticized for their environmental impact. The National Offshore Aquaculture Act of 2007 contains legislation for environmentally sound practices. The 2007 act would establish requirements to ensure offshore aquaculture development proceeds in an environmentally responsible manner that protects wild stocks and marine ecosystems; establish a coordinated permitting process for offshore aquaculture that integrates requirements under existing state and federal environmental laws and fills in regulatory gaps; and authorize a research and development program for all types of marine aquaculture. (NOAA,  ¶7) Seeking a better way to sustain a food source for the human population while trying to repair a damaged environment is a good solution. Aquaculture, fishing reserves, and replenishment programs are all possible solutions to the problem. By implementing multiple programs, it is possible to protect the oceans from the loss of biodiversity. The oceans are an important part of our world. If the oceans die, there is a high probability that human life will also die. â€Å"The diversity of ocean life is the key to its survival. The areas of the ocean with the most different kinds of life are the healthiest† (DeNoon, 2006,  ¶ 15). To quote Jacques Cousteau, â€Å"†¦we must turn to the sea with new understanding and new technology. We need to farm it as we farm the land†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (NOAA, p. 1). References Ayer, N. (2006, August). Less bad: Raising fish on land is not eco-panacea some would have us believe. Alternatives Journal, 32(3), p. 31. Retrieved December 1, 2007, from Gale database. Carlowicz, M. (2007, July). New regulations proposed for offshore fish farms; WHOI-led task force recommended tough environmental standards. Oceanus, 45(3), p. 19. Retrieved December 1, 2007 from Gale database. DeNoon, D. (2006, November 2). Prediction: Oceans’ fish gone by 2048. International study by ecologists economists predicts collapse of world ocean ecology. Retrieved December 1, 2007, from webmd.com/news/20061102/oceans-fish-gone-by-2048 Hourigan, T. (n.d.) Conserving Ocean Biodiversity: Trends and challenges. Retrieved December 1, 2007, from http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/websites/retiredsites/natdia_pdf/7hourigan.pdf Meserve, N. (2005, Spring). Aquaculture in America. Is it worth it? Benefits, costs and the future. Retrieved November 9, 2007, from biology.duke.edu/bio217/2005/ncm3/index.html U. S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. (n.d.). Offshore Aquaculture. Retrieved December 1, 2007, from http://aquaculture.noaa.gov/us/offshore.html U. S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. (n.d.). What is aquaculture? Retrieved November 9, 2007, from http://aquaculture.noaa.gov/what/welcome.html University of Phoenix. (2007). Declining fish stock VLR. Retrieved November 9, 2007, from https://axiaecampus.phoenix.edu/secure/aapd/axia/sci275/multimedia/video/declinining_fish_stock.htm Research Papers on Mitigation Strategies and SolutionsGenetic EngineeringRelationship between Media Coverage and Social andDefinition of Export QuotasOpen Architechture a white paperBionic Assembly System: A New Concept of SelfInfluences of Socio-Economic Status of Married MalesAssess the importance of Nationalism 1815-1850 EuropeTwilight of the UAWMarketing of Lifeboy Soap A Unilever ProductThe Project Managment Office System

Project Managment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Project Managment - Essay Example I will be discussing some salient points relative thereto project management and will also discuss how these key points will contribute to the enhancement and achievement of targeted company goals. The matter will be answered in accordance to the lessons learned from the module of this course which provided us learners the opportunity to work, plan, and manage a project using standard theoretical precepts. Some project management tools and techniques will also be used to introduce a technique in resolving organizational issues and concerns with sensitivity to available budget allocation and dynamics of the organization. In this questionnaire, I am expected to also use the tools for negotiations, teambuilding and quantitative estimation that can be drawn from the lesson using the case presented as my springboard for analysis. 2.0. Introduction Project management refers to the strategic capacity of an organization to put direction and implement programs and projects in accordance to sp ecific goals and objectives set by the company with a purposive end in mind (Lock, 2007). The outcome could either be about gaining profit, about organizational strengthening, attaining performance efficiency or developing a collaborative action with potential partners, venture-interest, or with possible business associates (Dinsmore, & Brewin, 2011). 3.0. Discussion 3.1. Case study Johnsons is a major player in the UK dry cleaning industry. Management has decided to move operations to a new site. The new site will allow Johnsons to expand its operational base by 50% and bid for new public sector contracts. Currently at its site, Johnsons has a capacity to deal with 20,000 kg of laundry. However, management prefers to work at 80% of its capacity. At a recent board meeting, the HR manager has been asked to explain the reason for poor workforce planning and lack of discipline which has reduced the working capacity to 60%. The above information can be used to define various terms. 3.2. Designed Capacity This is the average allowable level of capability, fitness and power of competence in the performance of services. In the case cited, the Johnson Company has a capacity to deal with 20,000 kg of laundry but considering some variables in the organization, e.g. human resource availability, laundry machines, spaces, and resource operational availability. 3.3. Effective Capacity This refers to an organizational design and value chain analysis pertaining to effective capacity management (Capacitas, 2013, p. 1). Often this correlates to the nature of organizational structure, model or framework of operation, the available resources with services, repository of service, information and system of reporting, scope of managerial function, and the training or educational capacity of the company’s human resources (Capacitas, 2013, p. 1). From the cited case, what is clear here is that from its designed capacity, the management agreed that it can only effectively delive r and perform 80% services. From the allowable percentile of work production, the company can only perform or produce services at a rate of 16,000 kg of laundry. It is further unclear, given the many variables, if these 16,000kg constitute the daily laundry operation of the company or in a weekly status or in a month. The case given have not expressly cited the time and days that such 60,000 kg average laundry service is attained. It’s also unclear about the technology that will be used for laundry operation and neither is the case clear

Social Justice, Access to Health Care and Abortion Debate Essay

Social Justice, Access to Health Care and Abortion Debate - Essay Example Universal access to health care is crucial as this is a basic human right. The health of a society is affected by not simply the ease of visiting a doctor, but also by the social status and the existing unfairness in universal coverage. Universal coverage of a population implies that when the population seeks health care, they receive at least a package of the service at a fair cost at the delivery point. Before legalizing any aspect of health intervention such as cloning or euthanasia, universal access should be ensured. Cloning and euthanasia have paramount impact on the culture and taboos of the population; thus, any application without prior universal access to the community will violate a population’s social rights. Ethical issues may arise in this case because the two medical advancements are not fully acceptable by all cultures. According to Pan American Health Organization, the ethical issue relating to euthanasia is if it is permissible to take one’s own life o r if another person should be a partisan in taking another person’s life. Advocates of the practice argue that it is humane for a person to help another person die if it is the only recommended way of eliminating their pain and suffering. Those opposing it argue that it amounts to murder and contradicts the fundamentals of social justice. Proponents of human cloning argue that the technology is a huge progression towards human and technological evolution. Those opposing it claim that it belittles the divine value associated with humans thereby reducing them into disposable artifacts. Ensuring universal access before applying such medical interventions will address the mentioned divergent views and avert their unfair or genocidal impacts. According to Lu, the benefits of any medical intervention cannot be realized if they are not extended equally within the society (79). Access to healthcare is a requirement for social justice. Therefore, the legislation should lay equal empha sis on the universal coverage of medical services and related healthcare benefits to all. Cloning and euthanasia are forms of health care that have a central role to play in ensuring social justice as they contribute in promoting the welfare and opportunities among community members. This sustains people’s participation in all spheres of life. Lu and Hsiao also posit that the relationship between health care and opportunity suggests that the distributive justice should be ensured in all sectors of the health care system. This is in order to uphold the virtue of equality of opportunity as stipulated in the concept of social justice (82). Some of the challenges to ensuring universal coverage and access to health care are related to structural inequalities in regards to race, gender, ethnicity and caste. Achievement of universal access to health care calls for improvement in three dimensions namely; expansion of the extent of financial protection available to the population, put ting in place efficient organizational and structural mechanisms for improving financial protection and widening the range of services available at a subsidized cost. Deal with the main pros and cons on the abortion debate and spell out what the pro-life, pro- choice and more moderate positions are. Then state your own view on this to justify and defend it from likely criticisms. Is there a slippery slope effect here from allowing abortions? Will society

Native Americans and early Euro-American settlers Essay

Native Americans and early Euro-American settlers - Essay Example The evidence is very clear in the presence of Christianity across the areas invaded by the Euro- American settlers. The discovery by Columbus in 1942 is a benchmark for the massive invasion by the early European settlers that would dominate the North American continent for several centuries (Fraser 37). Despite the manifestation of Christianity in various denominations, it once faced acceptance challenges amongst many North American natives. The differences in the denominations were very significant surrounded by the need for land, which increased the enmity between the Native Americans and the European settlers group. The Native Americans within the today’s United States boundaries inclusive of the people of Hawaii, and Alaska belongs to numerous tribal and ethnic groups some of which in intact political societies. The traditional Native ceremonies are still in practice in some bands and tribes alongside old theological beliefs. The use of sweet grass, tobacco, sweat lodge ceremonies and prayers in ancient phonologies are also common amongst some people in the current society. There is also the presence of the Native American church, which comprises of both Christianity elements alongside ancient spiritual practices. The presence of these practices all along to today’s society signifies strong religious beliefs and resistance to change offered by the Native American people (Kozlowski and Weber 102). The Native American religion brings along great complexity that is difficult to explain. The presence of many tribes is a profound factor alongside the verbal expression of religious principles from one generation to the other. Beliefs amongst the several tribes were different though they form a convergence at one point by sharing the major aspects. The religion amongst major tribes had a great focus on nature where animals, landscape, plants and majority of environmental elements that contribute greatly in the religious

Communicative Language Teaching: The Origins

Communicative Language Teaching: The Origins This chapter is devoted to the CLT approach, its origins and major features. Also the chapter sheds the light on grammar, how it is handled in language teaching, the way it is defined and lastly, and perhaps most importantly, its role in CLT. 3.1 Communicative Language Teaching CLT is an approach to the teaching of second and foreign languages that emphasizes interaction as both the means and the ultimate goal of learning a language. It is also referred to as communicative approach to the teaching of foreign languages or simply the communicative approach. 3.1.1 The Origins Educators such as Richards and Rodgers, Savignon, and Sano state that the origins of communicative language teaching are many, in so far as one teaching methodology tends to influence the next. Sano (1984:171) says that the communicative approach could be said to be the product of educators and linguists who had grown dissatisfied with the audio-lingual and grammar-translation method of foreign language instruction. Richards and Rodgers (1986:93), on the other hand, claim that the origins of CLT are to be found in the changes of situational language teaching approaches, which influenced the British language teaching tradition till the late 1960s. 29 Meanwhile, Savignon (1991:262) asserts that the emergence of CLT can be traced to concurrent developments on both sides of the Atlantic, i.e., in Europe and the United States. Educators and linguists e.g., Candlin (1981: 121) and Widdowson (1978: 61) saw the need to focus in language teaching on communicative proficiency rather than on mere mastery of structures. They felt that students were not learning enough realistic, whole language in those methods, i.e., situational language teaching, audio-lingual or grammar-translation method. Students did not know how to communicate using appropriate social languages, gestures, or expressions; in brief, they were at loss to communicate in the cultures of the language studied. In respect of this point, Widdowson remarks the following: The problem is that students, and especially students in developing countries, who have received several years of formal English teaching, frequently remain deficient in the ability to actually use the language, and to understand its use, in normal communication, whether in spoken or written mode (1972:15). Similarly, Howatt says that the original motivation for adopting a communicative approach in the early seventies was remedial, an attempt to overcome the inadequacies of existing, structural syllabuses, materials, and methods (1984:287). To put simply, the rapid application of these ideas by textbook writers; and the equally rapid acceptance of these new principles by British language teaching specialists, curriculum development centers, and even governments gave prominence nationally and internationally to what came to be referred to as communicative approach. There was a positive response from linguists, methodologists, and classroom teachers offering the best hope for the elaboration and diffusion of language teaching methods and materials that work, encourage and support learners in the development of their communicative competence (Savignon, 1991: 264). Although the movement began as largely British innovations focusing on alternative conceptions of a syllabus since the mid 1970s, the scope of communicative language teaching has expanded. Interest in and the development of communicative style teaching mushroomed in those years; authentic language use and classroom exchanges where students engaged in real communication with one another became quite popular. Also, numerous textbooks for teachers and teacher trainers expound on the nature of communicative approaches and offer techniques for varying ages and purposes (Brown, 1994: 217). It is this socio-linguistic perspective, which is the unifying principle and the driving force behind a communicative approach to language teaching (Sano, 1984: 174) Although this socio-linguistic approach is basically a language theory rather than a learning theory, taking into account Richards and Rodgers definition of approach, CLT encompasses a theory of language and a theory of language learning, and see it as an approach than a method. Briefly, they define an approach as a set of theories about the nature of language and of language learning. It is axiomatic, as it takes a number of assumptions as a starting point. A method, on the other hand, is the level at which theory is put into practice and at which choices are made about the particular skills to be taught, the content to be taught, and the order in which the content will be presented. Besides, these writers claim, at the level of language theory, CLT has a rich, if somewhat eclectic theoretical base (1986:102). 3.1.2 Language Theory The rise of interest in the individual and in relationships among individuals, which characterized the sixties, marked the emergence of socio-linguistics, that branch of science where sociology and linguistics meet. A new light was shed on language, not simply as a system of structurally related elements, which form a rule, but as a vehicle for the expression of meaning and social interaction. In other words, the structural view was supplemented with a functional, a semantic and interactional view. It was this idea of language as communication that started off the whole communicative movement (Savignon, 1991: 266). And it was Hymes (1972) that made history by challenging Chomskys view on linguistic competence, and replacing it by the notion of communicative competence (cited in Savignon, 1991: 269). In the words of Canale and Swain (1980:7) communicative competence refers to the interaction between grammatical competence, or knowledge of the rules of grammar, and socio-linguistic competence, or knowledge of the rules of language use. In other words, rules of use and rules of usage are complementary and not mutually exclusive. According to them; the primary goal of a communicative approach must be to facilitate the integration of these two types of knowledge for the learner (1980: 25). Savignon notes that communicative competence characterizes the ability of language learners to interact with other speakers to make meaning, and [it] is relative, not absolute, and depends on the cooperation of all the participants involved (1983:9). Broadly speaking, communicative competence is an aspect convey and interpret messages and to negotiate meanings interpersonally within specific contexts. According to the socio-linguistic theory, the act of communication is seen not as basically an exchange of linguistic messages, but rather as a social phenomenon in which the use of language plays a part. In the field of the ethnography of communication, which Stern (1983:220) defines as the study of the individuals communicative activity in its social setting. language is a sub-ordinate, yet integrated part of social and situational systems, which are actually behavior patterns. Halliday argues the existence of a semantic network which is the linguistic realization of patterns of behavior. He postulates that the more we are able to relate the options in grammatical system to meaning potential in social contexts and behavioral settings, the more insight we shall gain into the nature of the language system (1978:44). In his functional account of language use, Halliday has criticized Chomskys linguistic, theory of competence. He says Linguistics is concerned with the description of speech acts or texts, since only through the study of language in use are all the functions of language, and therefore all components of meaning, brought into focus (1970:145). This view complements Hymes opinion of communicative competence, and we can only understand language if we view it as an instrument or as a communicative tool. To which Widdowson (1979:50) adds that once we accept the need to teach language as communication, we can obviously no longer think of language in te rms only of sentences. This statement provides the justification for the emphasis on discourse in CLT. 3.1.3 Learning Theory In contrast to the amount that has been written in CLT literature about communicative dimensions of language, little has been written about learning theory. However, two of the general learning theories, which emphasize common features among learners, are cognitive theory and skills theory. 3.1.3.1 Cognitive Theory According to cognitive theory, learning involves the ability to understand, to anticipate, and to relate new information to pre-existing mental structures. This focus on meaningful learning is derived from an attempt to make sense of the world. The heavy reliance of CLT practitioners on the mental schema theory is exemplified by Brumfits statement that new learning must be closely assimilated with what is already known, and if language is being learnt for use, then new learning must be directly associated with use (1979:189). Hence, at the level of learning theory this view supports Hallidays claim about the semantic network as a bridge between linguistic form and behaviour pattern, a link between words and the world. As Stern (1983:261) posits The learner must become a participant in a real-life context of language use as a condition of effective learning. Macdonough (1981:27) describes the cognitive process as hypothesis testing, and adds, significantly, that rules can only be found if the risk of error is run (ibid: 29). This view is reflected in the great tolerance of CLT towards errors. Errors are not to be avoided at all cost; they are not to be seen as evidence of non-learning, but being an external manifestation of the continual revision of the inter-language system. They are essential elements in the learning process. 3.1.3.2 Skills Theory This theory emphasizes the importance of cognitive learning and practice. However, advocates of this theory reject mechanical practice altogether as being totally irrelevant to genuine learning. Skills theory links mental and behavioural aspects of performance through a hierarchically organized set of plans, in which low level of automation is necessary to free attention for high level of planning. In this regard, Littlewood states the following: The cognitive aspect involves the internalization of plans for Creating appropriate behaviour. For language use, these plans derive mainly from the language system they include grammatical rules, procedures for selecting vocabulary, and social conventions governing speech. The behavioural aspect involves the automation of these plans so that they can be converted into fluent performance in real time. This occurs mainly through practice in converting plans into performance (1984:74). Skill practice is considered as a legitimate learning principle (Richards and Rodgers 1986), provided that it offers natural options of language use which reproduce the kinds of choice that occur in spontaneous communication (Stern 1983:260). 3.1.4 Major Features CLT is, relatively, a newly adapted approach in the area of foreign/second language teaching. CLT is a hybrid approach to language teaching, essentially progressive rather than traditional. (Wright 2000: 7). CLT can be seen to derive from a multidisciplinary perspective that includes, at least, linguistics, psychology, philosophy, sociology and educational research (Savignon 1991:271). It is generally accepted that, proponents of CLT see it as an approach, not a method (See Richards and Rodgers 1986; Savignon 1991; Brown 1994). For Brown, for instance, [Communicative language teaching] is a unified but broadly- based theoretical position about the nature of language and language learning and teaching(1994: 244-245). He further maintains that though it is difficult to synthesize all of the various definitions that have been offered, the following four interconnected characteristics could be taken as a definition of CLT: 1. Classroom goals are focused on all of the components of communicative competence and not restricted to grammatical or linguistic competence. 2. Language teaching techniques are designed to engage learners in the pragmatic, authentic, functional use of language for meaningful purposes. Language forms are not the central focus but rather aspects of language that enable the learner to accomplish those purposes. 3. Fluency and accuracy are seen as complementary principles underlying communicative techniques. At times fluency may have to take on more importance than accuracy in order to keep learners meaningfully engaged in language use. 4. In the communicative classroom, students ultimately have to use the language, productively and receptively, in unrehearsed contexts (Brown, 1994: 245). The communicative approach is a hazy concept, which can have a variety of meanings along the continuum between a strong version and a weak one. Johnson (1979: 155) argues that the weak version attempts to integrate communicative activities into an existing programme, where as the strong version claims that language is acquired through communication. According to Howatt (1984: 279) the weak version, which became more or less the standard practice in the late 70s and early 80s of the last century, stresses the importance of providing learners with opportunities to use their English for communicative purposes and, characteristically, attempts to integrate such activities into a wider program of language teaching. As for the strong version of communicative teaching it advances the claim that language is acquired through communication, so that it is not merely a question of activating an existing but inert knowledge of the language, but of stimulating the development of the language system itself. If the former could be described as learning to use English, the latter entails using English to learn it (ibid). Howatt adds that creating information gap activities, games, role-plays, dramas, simulations etc., are some of the exercise types in the weak versions of CLT. Although we have different versions and various ways in which CLT is interpreted and applied, educators in the area, Richards and Rodgers (1986, 2001); Littlewood (1981); Finocchiaro and Brumfit (1983); Brumfit (1984); Candlin (1981); Widdowson (1978, 1979); Johnson and Morrow (1981);; Larsen-Freeman (1986); Celce- Murcia (1991b) and Johnson (1982), put some of the major characteristics of CLT as they are presented in the following subsections. 3.1.4.1 Emphasis on Language Function It is felt that students need knowledge of the linguistic form, meaning and functions. However, CLT gives primary importance to the use or function of the language and secondary importance to its structure or form (Larsen-Freeman 1986: 88; Johnson 1982:63). This does not mean that knowledge of grammar is not essential for effective communication, rather systematic treatment of both functions and forms is vital. Stressing on this, Littlewood says one of the most characteristic features of communicative language teaching is that it pays systematic attention to functional as well as structural aspects of language (1981: 1). CLT suggests that grammatical structure might better be subsumed under various functional categorieswe pay considerably less attention to the overt presentation and discussion of grammatical rules than we traditionally did (Brown, 1994: 245). Emphasis is also given to meaning (messages they are creating or task they are completing) rather than form (correctness of language and language structure). For Finocchiaro and Brumfit meaning is paramount (1983:91) since it helps the learners to manage the message they engage with the interlocutors. 3.1.4.2 Fluency and Accuracy Fluency and accuracy are seen as complementary principles underlying communicative techniques (Brown, 1994:245). However, at times fluency may have to take on more importance than accuracy because fluency and acceptable language is the primary goal (Finocchiaro and Brumfit 1983:93) and accuracy is judged not in the abstract but in contexts. Fluency is emphasized over accuracy in order to keep learners meaningfully engaged in language use. It is important, however, that fluency should never be encouraged at the expense of clear, unambiguous, direct communication. And much more spontaneity is present in communicative classrooms (Brown, 1994: 246) 3.1.4.3 Teaching Techniques Language teaching techniques are designed to engage learners in the pragmatic, authentic, functional use of language for meaningful purposes. Classrooms should provide opportunities for rehearsal of real-life situations and provide opportunity for real communication. Emphasis on creative role plays, simulations, dramas, games, projects, etc., is the major activities which can help the learner provide spontaneity and improvisation, not just repetition and drills. Another characteristic of the classroom process is the use of authentic materials because it is felt desirable to give students the opportunity to develop the strategies for understanding language as it is actually used by native speakers. In the classroom, everything is done with a communicative intent. Information gap, choice and feedback are thought to be truly communicative activities (Johnson and Morrow, 1981: 25). 3.1.4.4 Grammar Teaching Grammar can still be taught, but less systematically, in traditional ways along side more innovative approaches. Savignon (2002:5) says for the development of communicative ability [communication depends on grammar], research findings overwhelmingly support the integration of form-focused exercises with meaning-focused experience. Grammar is important; and learners seem to focus best on grammar when it relates to their communicative needs and experiences. Disregard of grammar will virtually guarantee breakdown in communication (Thompson, 1996: 10). These writers also say that there are some misconceptions about CLT that makes difficult for many teachers to see clearly what is happening and to identify the useful innovations that CLT has brought. One of the persistent misconceptions is that CLT means not teaching grammar although the exclusion of explicit attention to grammar was never necessary part of CLT (ibid). In CLT involvement in communicative event is seen as central to language development, and this involvement necessarily requires attention to form (structure). In fact, it is certainly understandable that there was a reaction against the heavy emphasis on structure at the expense of natural communication. Nonetheless, it would seem foolish to make mistakes on the side of using communicative approach exclusively and totally disregard grammar teaching. Regarding this, Celce-Murcia comments: In spite of the intuitive appeal and the anecdotal evidence Supporting proposal for exclusively communicative language teaching, there is equally appealing and anecdotal evidence that grammarless approach. can lead to the development of a broken, ungrammatical, pidgenized form of the target language beyond which students rarely progress (1991a:462). Savignon also remarks that, communicative language teaching does not necessarily mean the rejection of familiar materials [grammar](2002:7). Rivers in her famous statement strengthened Savignons remark in that Saying that we do not need to teach grammar is like saying that we can have a chicken walking around without bones (cited in Arnold, 1994: 122). Nowadays, it seems that educators accept that an appropriate amount of class time should be devoted to grammar, but this does not mean a simple return to a traditional treatment of rules. Rather the focus has now moved away from the teacher covering to the learners discovering grammar (Thompson, 1996: 11). 3.1.4.5 Skills and Activities Communicative approach is not limited to oral skills. Reading and writing skills need to be developed to promote pupils confidence in all four skills areas. Students work on all four skills from the beginning, i.e., a given activity might involve reading, speaking, listening, and perhaps also writing (Celce-Murcia, 1991b: 78). Of course, oral communication is seen to take place through negotiation between speaker(s) and listener(s) (most likely among students), so too is the interaction between the reader and writer, but with no immediate feedback from the reader. Hence, in the classroom, emphasis is given to oral and listening skills, as contact time with language is important. It paves way for more fluid command of the language. Learners do not hear the teacher all the time, but having personal contact themselves, practicing sounds themselves, working on the permutation of sentence patterns and getting chance to make mistakes and learn from doing so. The idea of emphasizing the oral skills creates uncertainty among teachers. They misconceived CLT as if it were devoted to teaching only speaking. But, CLT is not exclusively concerned with face to face oral communication (Savignon, 2002:7). The principles of CLT apply equally to reading and writing activities that engage readers and writers in the interpretation, expression, and negotiation of meaning. In other words, it is important to recognize that it is not only the speaker (or writer) who is communicating. Instead, communication through language happens in both the written and spoken medium, and involves at least two people. Thompson (1996:13) further states that, though there is a complaint that CLT ignores written language, a glance at recent mainstream textbooks shows that reading and writing materials have been given attention too. 3.1.4.6 Pair Work and Group Work Students regularly work in groups or pairs to transfer (and if necessary to negotiate) meaning in situations where one person has information that others lack (Celce-Murcia, 1991b: 82). More emphasis should be given to active modes of learning such as pair or group work in problem-solving tasks in order to maximize the time allotted to each student for learning to negotiate meaning. Many people assume group/pair work is applicable in all contexts. However, classroom group and/or pair work should not be considered an essential feature used all the time, and may well be inappropriate in some contexts (ibid). Thompson (1996:12) and Savignon (2002: 6) claim that group and/or pair work are flexible and useful techniques than that suggests, and they are active modes of learning which can help the learners to negotiate meaning and engage in problem-solving activities. The use of pair/group work is a physical signal of some degree of control and choice passing to the learners; but that needs to be complemented by real choice (learners need to be given some degree of control over their learning). Therefore, the use of pair/group work needs to be complemented by real choice for the following reasons: (1) they can provide the learners with a relatively safe opportunity to try out ideas before launching them in public; (2)they can lead to more developed ideas, and therefore greater confidence and more effective communication; (3) they can also provide knowledge and skills which may complement those of their partners which in turn lead to greater success in undertaking tasks (Thompson, 1996:13). 3.1.4.7 Errors and Correction Errors are seen as a natural outcome of the development of the communication skills and are therefore tolerated. Learners trying their best to use the language creatively and spontaneously are bound to make errors. Constant correction is unnecessary and even counter-productive. Correction noted by the teacher should be discreet. Let the students talk and express themselves and the form of the language becomes secondary. If errors of form are tolerated and are seen as a natural outcome of the development of communication skills, students can have limited linguistic knowledge and still be successful communicators (Larsen-Freeman, 1986: 121). 3.1.4.8 Evaluation Sano (1984: 176) states that evaluation is carried out in terms of fluency and accuracy. Students who have the most control of the structures and vocabulary are not necessarily the best communicators. A teacher may use formal evaluation i.e., he/she is likely to use a communicative test, which is an integrative and has a real communicative function (e.g., Madsen, 1983; Hughes, 1989). Larsen-Freeman (1986: 132) points out that the teacher can also informally evaluate his students performance in his role as an advisor or co-communicator. Savigonon, (1991: 275: ; 2002: 4) reports that the communicative approach follows global, qualitative evaluation of learner achievement as opposed to quantitative assessment of discrete linguistic features. 3.1.4.9 Native Language Use The students native language has no role to play (Larsen Freeman, 1986: 135). The target language is used both during communicative activities and for the purpose of classroom management. The students learn from these classroom management exchanges, and realize that the target language is a vehicle for communication. Whatever the case may be, the teacher should be able to use the target language fluently and appropriately (Celce-Murcia, 1991b: 8). However, for others (e.g., Finocchiaro and Brumfit, 1983: 98) judicious use of native language is accepted where feasible. Teachers may provide directions of homework, class work and test directions by using the native language. 3.1.4.10 Teachers Role The teacher is the facilitator of students learning, manager of classroom activities, advisor during activities and a co-communicator engaged in the communicative activity along with the students (Littlewood, 1981: 9; Breen and Candlin, 1980: 90). But he does not always himself interact with students; rather he acts as an independent participant. Other roles assumed for the teacher are needs analyst, counselor, researcher and learner. Students, on the other hand, are more responsible managers of their own learning. They are expected to interact with other people, either in the flesh, through pair and group work, or in the writings. They are communicators and actively engaged in negotiating meaning in trying to make themselves understood. They learn to communicate by communicating (Larsen-Freeman, 1986: 142). Above all, since the teachers role is less dominant; the teaching/learning process is student-centered rather than teacher-centered. In other words, it is the learner who plays a great role in a large proportion of the process of learning. 3.2 Grammar and Grammars Yule (1996: 87) states that each adult speaker of a language clearly has some type of mental grammar, that is, a form of internal linguistic knowledge which operates in the production and recognition of appropriately structured expressions in that language. This grammar is subconscious and is not the result of any teaching. A second, and quite different, concept of grammar involves what might be considered linguistic etiquette, that is, the identification of the proper or best structures to be used in a language. A third view of grammar involves the study and analysis of the structures found in a language, usually with the aim of establishing a description of the grammar of English, for example, as distinct from the grammar of other languages. Linguists define grammar as a set of components: phonetics (the production and perception of sounds), phonology (how sounds are combined), morphology (the study of forms, or how elements are combined to create words), syntax (how words are strung together into sentences), and semantics or meaning. Because all languages are characterized by these components, by definition, language does not exist without grammar (VanPatten, 1990:288). However, grammar has not always been defined in these terms. Originally, the term grammar, grammatica, referred to the art of writing, as compared to rhetoric, rettorica, the art of speaking. As used today by many teachers and learners, grammar is loosely understood to be a set of rules that govern language, primarily its morphology and syntax. But morphology and syntax are only two components of grammar (Chamot Kupper, 1989: 15). Actually the word grammar has been defined rather differently by various grammarians and dictionary writers. According to Crystal (2003:207), grammar is systematic description of a language. Also, Widdowson describes that grammar is the name given to the knowledge of how words are adapted and arranged to form sentences (1988: 147; cited in Shih-Chuan Chang, 2011: 14). Still other definitions of the term specify the scope of grammar. In fact, grammar is multi-dimensional (Kennedy, 1987: 165) and has multi-meanings. It is generally thought to be a set of rules for choosing words and putting words together to make sense. Every language has grammar. It has been held that if a language is a building, the words are bricks and the grammar is the architects plan. One may have a million bricks, but do not make a building without a plan. Similarly, if a person knows a million English words, but he doesnt know how to put them together, then he cannot speak English (Karavas, 1996: 189). In other words, grammar is a framework to describe languages. 3.2.1 Grammar in Language Teaching The role of grammar is perhaps one of the most controversial issues in language teaching. In the early parts of the twentieth century, grammar teaching formed an essential part of language instruction, so much that other aspects of language learning were either ignored or downplayed. The argument was that if one knew the grammatical rules of the language, he would be able to use it for communication. This concept was strongly challenged in the early 1970s (Ellis, 2006: 90). Knowledge of the grammatical system of the language, it was argued, was but one of the many components which underlay the notion of communicative competence. To be considered a competent user of a language, one needs to know not only the rules of grammar, but also how the rules are used in real communication. During this period, grammar teaching became less prominent, and in some cases, was abandoned (Hudson, 1998: 12). In recent years, grammar teaching has regained its rightful place in the language curriculum. People now agree that grammar is too important to be ignored, and that without a good knowledge of grammar, learners language development will be severely constrained. There is now a general consensus that the issue is not whether or not we should teach grammar. The issue now centers on questions such as, which grammar items do learners need most? How do we go about teaching grammar items in the most effective way? And are they best taught inductively or deductively? (Tomlinson, 1994: 22). In fa

Pat Lyon At The Forge Essay -- John Neagle Artist Painter

Pat Lyon at The Forge John Neagle painted the portrait "Pat Lyon at the Forge" between 1826 and 1827. Just 50 years after the beginning of the American Revolution, this painting shows how much America had evolved. Neagle's portrait is a powerful "celebration of productive labor" (p 281) and the, "entrepreneurial and commercial energies that 'transformed' the country" (p 8). It conveys the notion of 'republican equality' (p 241) that Wood discusses and how was important it was to the leaders of the Revolution. While portraits had earlier been an 'exclusive luxury of the aristocracy' (p 354), Neagle's portrait is a break from that tradition. The painting depicts a blacksmith working in his forge with a young boy, possibly an apprentice, looking on behind him. Pay Lyon looks nothing like an aristocrat. He is a laborer, hard at work with his shirt unbuttoned and sleeves rolled up. In traditional European society, gentlemen didn?t work, only common people did. ?The liberality for which gentlemen were known connoted freedom ? freedom from material want?and freedom from having ...